Constructivism: Historical Underpinnings & What the Research Says
Constructivism as it relates to education can be defined as the theory that individuals learn new information by connecting it with their past (Sjøberg, 2007). As they continue to experience social interactions they continue to grow and test existing ideas or schemas (Vygotsky,1978). This results in constructing knowledge based on past experience and present interaction with the world around them (Dehlia, 1977). Dehlia further asserts that knowedge is not static and that the “ very structures through which the world is constructed are critically responsive to “reality” …[and] undergo developmental transformation in the direction of greater complexity” (Dehila, 1977, p.4). This implies that one’s schemas are constantly being challenged and adjusted as they interact with the world around them. In terms of education it is the knowledge that is gleaned through this adjustment that is important as it informs the development of new ideas.
There are many different philosophers that are associated with Constructivism for the purposes of this section I will address 3 of those philosophers and their contributions to this theory. Many if not all of the core ideas listed above were founded through the teachings of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and Seymour Papert. In combination each of these theorists provide a good understanding of the theory in more depth. Piaget is the foundation of the Constructivist theory, Vygotsky explores the social aspect and Papert investigates Constructivism through a 21st century lens.
Jean Piaget (1869-1980) was best known for his theories of cognitive development specifically that of developmental psychology. Piaget thought of himself as a genetic epistemologist. Genetic Epistemology refers to the study of the “origins of knowledge” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_epistemology) . Through viewing his three children Piaget came to the realization that children think differently than adults and that as they mature they go through a series of developmental milestones. These include four major cognitive developments from birth to life. They are: sensorimotor
(birth to age 2), preoperational (2-7), concrete operational (7-11) and formal operational ( 11 and up)
(Genetic Epistmology-Wikipedia, 2013).
Movement from one stage to another is a process of development. Assimilation is the process by which the child observes the outside world and incorporates that knowledge into their existing schema. This is the easiest as it does not require a lot of adjustment of current ideas.(Cherry, 2013). Instead what is being perceived is adapted to fit the present structure. Therefore, the child may internalize a reality that only fits within their internal schema and may exclude key components of a situation which they themselves do not understand (Atherton, 2013).
Accommodation involves changing, altering or modifying one’s internal schemas to adapt to new information from the outside world. This is a more complex process as at times it can involve having to create new schemas which many conflict with current ones.
Equilibration is the process by which children balance assimilation and accommodation. It is at this level that they are able to progress to the next level of development. Piaget believed that at equilibration children were able to apply balancing old knowledge ( assimilation ) which changes necessary to accept new knowledge ( accommodation).
It is in within these ideas that we can see the basis for constructivism. The constant building and changing schemas based on past experiences ( assimilation) and new information ( accommodation). The balancing of the two (equilibration) is how we construct knowledge. It is important to note that this process of development is evident in adults as well as children. When introduced with new information which conflicts with previous knowledge the adult must change their schema to make room for the necessary changes. An extension of Piaget’s constructivist theory is that of Lev Vygotsky’s.
Vygotsky (1869-1934) takes the theory further to address the social aspect of constructivism. Vygotsky believed that groups construct knowledge from each other, collaboratively, creating a small culture of stored artifacts and stored meanings (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky).
According to Vygotsky “children’s learning begins long before they attend school. Any learning a child encounters in schools always has a previous history” (Vygotsky, 1978, p.33), each bit of new information and eventual skill development continuously builds on previous knowledge. Vygotsky further asserts that the learning done in the preschool years is different than the learning in more formal school years. During the preschool years children are learning through imitation i.e: language acquisition. Through imaginary play children start to define rules and roles within society, helping to play out various scenarios and to start to define their world. This is different for the upper levels of education “which is concerned with the assimilation of the fundamentals of scientific knowledge” (Stiere & Maybin, 1994 .p.52).
With relation to constructivism Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development theory can be used to show a scaffolding effect that occurs through the adding knowledge through the assistance of what Vygotsky refers to as the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refers to the level of tasks a child has the potential to complete. The difference between what is actually known or the actual level of development and the potential of what can be achieved with assistance (Vygotsky, ). ZPD can be placed on a continuum, with the lower ZPD referring to the tasks completed by the learner independently and the upper level is the referring the tasks completed with the assistance of the MKO. Eventually, the information acquired with assistance will become tasks that can be completed without assistance and so the cycle will continue (Stiere & Maybin,1994).
The ZPD takes into account that a child’s chronological age is not indicative of their mental age and only serves as a starting off point to investigate the actual placement of a child’s mental age. This theory allows for the fact that knowledge and mental growth are a constant and that as the child absorbs more and adjusts new information to their schemas they will also have to be challenged more ( Vygotsky,1978). This leads to the 21st century learning and Constructivism.
Seymour Papert (1983) address constructivism in the 21st century. His theory of constructionism is based on Piaget’s theory of Constructivism. However, Papert goes further to assert that it isn’t enough to assimilate and accommodate the information one must also be connected to the process. This is done through Constructivism which is the idea of “Giving children good things to do so that they can learn by doing much better than they could before."(Papert, 1980). What this means is that Children will learn better when connected experientially to their learning. And by creating tangible objects in the real world to show what they have learnt. Through this process children will scaffold information, but through the physical as well as the mental constructs which they create and recreate.
Technology is one way to construct that knowledge. Papert’s main focus early on was on mathematics and specifically that of the LOGO’s program. LOGO was created as way to help children think and solve problems. According to Papert, technology “enables children to use knowledge, mathematical knowledge and other knowledge, not just store it in their heads so that twelve years later it's going to be good for them” (Papert,1980). This idea is what we are seeing now with technology in the classroom.
21st Century technology allows for construction of knowledge in more ways than can ever be imagined in the past. Papert (1993) believed that “if we really look at the 'child as builder'… all builders need materials to build which…I attribute to the surrounding cultures as that source of these building materials” (p.7). Today’s technology allows for a wider range of “building materials”. One example of this is synchronist learning which allows for real time interaction with people all over the world not just within one’s own community. This adds a much bigger layer of interaction and ultimately more materials with which to build. As well, online technologies like blogs, youtube, google etc allow for individuals to access information from many different sources rather than just what they observe around them. All of which contribute to the success of the 21st Century Learner.
Please go to the next page for Artifacts and Reflections
There are many different philosophers that are associated with Constructivism for the purposes of this section I will address 3 of those philosophers and their contributions to this theory. Many if not all of the core ideas listed above were founded through the teachings of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and Seymour Papert. In combination each of these theorists provide a good understanding of the theory in more depth. Piaget is the foundation of the Constructivist theory, Vygotsky explores the social aspect and Papert investigates Constructivism through a 21st century lens.
Jean Piaget (1869-1980) was best known for his theories of cognitive development specifically that of developmental psychology. Piaget thought of himself as a genetic epistemologist. Genetic Epistemology refers to the study of the “origins of knowledge” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_epistemology) . Through viewing his three children Piaget came to the realization that children think differently than adults and that as they mature they go through a series of developmental milestones. These include four major cognitive developments from birth to life. They are: sensorimotor
(birth to age 2), preoperational (2-7), concrete operational (7-11) and formal operational ( 11 and up)
(Genetic Epistmology-Wikipedia, 2013).
Movement from one stage to another is a process of development. Assimilation is the process by which the child observes the outside world and incorporates that knowledge into their existing schema. This is the easiest as it does not require a lot of adjustment of current ideas.(Cherry, 2013). Instead what is being perceived is adapted to fit the present structure. Therefore, the child may internalize a reality that only fits within their internal schema and may exclude key components of a situation which they themselves do not understand (Atherton, 2013).
Accommodation involves changing, altering or modifying one’s internal schemas to adapt to new information from the outside world. This is a more complex process as at times it can involve having to create new schemas which many conflict with current ones.
Equilibration is the process by which children balance assimilation and accommodation. It is at this level that they are able to progress to the next level of development. Piaget believed that at equilibration children were able to apply balancing old knowledge ( assimilation ) which changes necessary to accept new knowledge ( accommodation).
It is in within these ideas that we can see the basis for constructivism. The constant building and changing schemas based on past experiences ( assimilation) and new information ( accommodation). The balancing of the two (equilibration) is how we construct knowledge. It is important to note that this process of development is evident in adults as well as children. When introduced with new information which conflicts with previous knowledge the adult must change their schema to make room for the necessary changes. An extension of Piaget’s constructivist theory is that of Lev Vygotsky’s.
Vygotsky (1869-1934) takes the theory further to address the social aspect of constructivism. Vygotsky believed that groups construct knowledge from each other, collaboratively, creating a small culture of stored artifacts and stored meanings (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky).
According to Vygotsky “children’s learning begins long before they attend school. Any learning a child encounters in schools always has a previous history” (Vygotsky, 1978, p.33), each bit of new information and eventual skill development continuously builds on previous knowledge. Vygotsky further asserts that the learning done in the preschool years is different than the learning in more formal school years. During the preschool years children are learning through imitation i.e: language acquisition. Through imaginary play children start to define rules and roles within society, helping to play out various scenarios and to start to define their world. This is different for the upper levels of education “which is concerned with the assimilation of the fundamentals of scientific knowledge” (Stiere & Maybin, 1994 .p.52).
With relation to constructivism Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development theory can be used to show a scaffolding effect that occurs through the adding knowledge through the assistance of what Vygotsky refers to as the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refers to the level of tasks a child has the potential to complete. The difference between what is actually known or the actual level of development and the potential of what can be achieved with assistance (Vygotsky, ). ZPD can be placed on a continuum, with the lower ZPD referring to the tasks completed by the learner independently and the upper level is the referring the tasks completed with the assistance of the MKO. Eventually, the information acquired with assistance will become tasks that can be completed without assistance and so the cycle will continue (Stiere & Maybin,1994).
The ZPD takes into account that a child’s chronological age is not indicative of their mental age and only serves as a starting off point to investigate the actual placement of a child’s mental age. This theory allows for the fact that knowledge and mental growth are a constant and that as the child absorbs more and adjusts new information to their schemas they will also have to be challenged more ( Vygotsky,1978). This leads to the 21st century learning and Constructivism.
Seymour Papert (1983) address constructivism in the 21st century. His theory of constructionism is based on Piaget’s theory of Constructivism. However, Papert goes further to assert that it isn’t enough to assimilate and accommodate the information one must also be connected to the process. This is done through Constructivism which is the idea of “Giving children good things to do so that they can learn by doing much better than they could before."(Papert, 1980). What this means is that Children will learn better when connected experientially to their learning. And by creating tangible objects in the real world to show what they have learnt. Through this process children will scaffold information, but through the physical as well as the mental constructs which they create and recreate.
Technology is one way to construct that knowledge. Papert’s main focus early on was on mathematics and specifically that of the LOGO’s program. LOGO was created as way to help children think and solve problems. According to Papert, technology “enables children to use knowledge, mathematical knowledge and other knowledge, not just store it in their heads so that twelve years later it's going to be good for them” (Papert,1980). This idea is what we are seeing now with technology in the classroom.
21st Century technology allows for construction of knowledge in more ways than can ever be imagined in the past. Papert (1993) believed that “if we really look at the 'child as builder'… all builders need materials to build which…I attribute to the surrounding cultures as that source of these building materials” (p.7). Today’s technology allows for a wider range of “building materials”. One example of this is synchronist learning which allows for real time interaction with people all over the world not just within one’s own community. This adds a much bigger layer of interaction and ultimately more materials with which to build. As well, online technologies like blogs, youtube, google etc allow for individuals to access information from many different sources rather than just what they observe around them. All of which contribute to the success of the 21st Century Learner.
Please go to the next page for Artifacts and Reflections